more Images
Anthracnose
Scientific name:
Colletotrichum spp. / Gloeosporium spp. / Glomerella spp. / Sphaceloma (Elsinoe) spp.
Type:
disease (fungal)
Common names:
anthracnose, brown blight (of coffee and tea), tear stain, dieback (citrus), fruit rot, stem canker, black spot of fruit, ripe rot of pepper, anthracnose tear-stain.
Host plants:
Avocados  Bananas  Beans  Cashew   Cassava  Citrus plants  Cotton  Cowpea  Cucumber  Eggplant  Green gram  Mango  Onion  Peppers  Pumpkin  Sorghum  Soybean  Spinach  Tomato  Wheat  Yam  Zucchini/Courgette  - (Anthracnose has a very wide host range including also Cucurbits, Cereals, Legumes and Spinach)  
General Information on Disease and Damage
Geographical Distribution of Anthracnose in Africa (red marked)
Anthracnose caused by the pathogen (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides) is found worldwide, although it is more abundant in the tropics and subtropics than in temperate regions. The map shows its distribution that has been documented in the literature since 1973.













Introduction
Anthracnose are diseases of the foliage, stems, or fruits that typically appear as dark-coloured spots or sunken lesions with a slightly raised rim. Some cause twig or branch dieback. In fruit infections, anthracnose often has a prolonged latent stage. In some fruit crops, the spots are raised and have corky surfaces. Anthracnose diseases of fruit often result in fruit drop and fruit rot. Anthracnoses are caused by fungi that produce conidia within black fungal fruiting bodies called acervuli. Colletotrichum species are responsible for most anthracnose diseases. They are found in nature mostly in their conidial stage (asexual) and can overwinter as mycelium or conidia in foliage, stems, twigs and infected crop debris.

Colletotrichum diseases are the most common anthracnoses and are very similar, if not identical, to the diseases caused by Glomerella. The latter is probably the sexual stage of most or all species of Colletotrichum (Gloeosporium). Anthracnose diseases, particularly those caused by Colletotrichum (Gloeosporium) or Glomerella fungi, are very common and destructive on numerous crop and ornamental plants. Although severe everywhere, anthracnose diseases cause their most significant losses in the tropics and subtropics. The diseases are favoured by wet, humid, warm conditions. They are spread by infected seed, rain splash and moist wind.



Damage
Anthracnose diseases, particularly those caused by Colletotrichum (Gloeosporium) or Glomerella fungi, are very common and destructive on numerous crop and ornamental plants. Although severe everywhere, anthracnose diseases cause their most significant losses in the tropics and subtropics. Pre- and post-harvest losses of many high-value crops are substantial in the tropics because of various diseases caused by C. gloeosporioides.

Flower infection on mangoes (blossom blight) can destroy flowers and young fruit and cause complete crop failure. Fruit infection may cause premature fruit drop, but major fruit losses occur during ripening when quiescent infections break out and cause spreading black lesions. Anthracnose of other fruits also causes major post-harvest losses. Heavy infections cause rapid rotting, and even light infections which cause mainly cosmetic damage will shorten fruit storage life. Because of variability between seasons and locations, overall figures for losses are difficult to give, but it is clear that in many mango-growing areas losses of up to 50% of the crop to the various stages of the disease would not be uncommon.

Of the foliage diseases caused by C. gloeosporioides, yam anthracnose can be one of the most economically damaging and may prevent significant growth of tubers if the disease strikes early.

Anthracnose infected vegetables (e.g. beans, brinjals, peas, pepper and cucurbits) and fruits (e.g. avocado, mangoes and bananas) are not acceptable for export market.



Host range
C. gloeosporioides is a fungi which causes Anthracnose, it is by far the most predominant and major Colletotrichum pathogen on a wide range of cultivated crops, particularly tropical perennial crops (Waller, 1992). However, because it is also a common saprophyte and secondary invader of damaged tissue, it has been implicated as a pathogen more often than is justified after closer investigation. Disease is favoured by wet/humid, warm conditions. It is spread by infected seed, rain splash and moist wind.



Symptoms
Anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides) on avocado fruit. This fungal disease is primarily a post-harvest problem when fruit is at maturity stage.
© A. A. Seif, icipe
Anthracnose diseases attack all plant parts at any growth stage. The symptoms are most visible on leaves and ripe fruits. At first, anthracnose generally appears on leaves as small and irregular yellow, brown, dark-brown or black spots. The spots can expand and merge to cover the whole affected area. The colour of the infected part darkens as it ages. The disease can also produce cankers on stems. Infected fruit has small, water-soaked, sunken, circular spots that may increase in size up to 1 cm in diameter. As it ages, the center of an older spot becomes blackish and emits gelatinous pink spore masses.
Anthracnose (Colletotrichum orbiculare) damage to pumpkin leaf (Cucumis sativus).
© Clemson University - USDA Cooperative Extension Slide Series, www.insectimages.org
Affected plant stages
Flowering stage, fruiting stage, post-harvest, seedling stage, and vegetative growing stage.

Affected plant parts
Leaves, stems, fruits/pods, and inflorescence.
back to Index
Biology and Ecology of Anthracnose
Anthracnose is a common name of plant diseases characterised by black lesions, usually sunken, caused by certain imperfect fungi that produce spores, e.g. Colletotrichum, Gloeosporium and some closely-related Sphaceloma species.

The lifecycle of anthracnose diseases involves essentially production of spores on susceptible hosts, dispersal of spores, penetration of host tissue, initiation of an infection process within the cells, development of lesions, formation of bristly spores and dispersal usually by water-splash, air currents, insects or other forms of contact.

The anthracnose pathogen reaches its most serious dimensions at high moisture and warm temperature. For example C. gloeosporioides has an optimum of 25-29°C but it will also survive at temperatures as low as 4°C. Spore germination, dispersal and infection require relative humidities near 100%. However, in drier situations disease expression can occur when latent infections are activated through aging or tissue damage.

The anthracnose diseases are primarily transmitted through seed, but also through infected plant parts. Rainsplash will also disperse spores within crop canopy. The pathogen persists on and in seed, crop residues, and weed hosts.

Major species of anthracnose fungi affecting crops in Africa:
  • Anthracnose of avocado (Glomerella cingulata)
  • Anthracnose of cotton (C. gossypii)
  • Anthracnose of cucurbits (C. lagenarium)
  • Anthracnose of grapes((Sphaceloma (Elsinoe) ampelina)
  • Anthracnose of lime (Gloeosporium limtticola)
  • Anthracnose of spinach (C. spinacicola)
  • Anthracnose of tomato (C. coccodes, C. phomoides)
  • Banana anthracnose (C. musae)
  • Bean anthracnose (C. lindemuthianum (Glomeralla cingulata))
  • Cereal anthracnose (C. graminicola)
  • Coffee anthracnose (C. coffeanum)
  • Common scab of citrus (Sphaceloma (Elsinoe) fawcettii))
  • Mango anthracnose (C. gloeosporioides)
  • Onion smudge (C. circinans)
  • Pea anthracnose (C. pisi)
  • Pepper anthracnose (C. capsici)
  • Red rot of sugarcane (Glomerella tucumanensis (C. falcatum))
  • Watermelon anthracnose (C. lagenarium)
back to Index
Pest and disease Management
Pest and disease Management: General illustration of the concept of infonet-biovision
These illustration shows the methods promoted on infonet-biovision. The methods shown at the bottom have a long-term effect, while methods shown at the top have a short-term effect. In organic farming systems, methods with a long-term effect are the basis of crop production and animal husbandry and should be used with preference. On the other hand methods with a short-term effect should be used in emergencies only. On infonet we do not promote synthethic pesticides.

Further below you find concrete preventive and curative methods against Anthracnose.
back to Index
Cultural practices

Field sanitation

Field sanitation is an important and highly effective farm practice to keep most diseases under control.

1. Properly select healthy plants for transplanting.
2. Keep weeds under control at all times. Keep the surroundings of your farm free of weeds, unless they are maintained and intended as habitat for natural enemies.
3. Make yourself 'clean'. Always bear in mind that you might be the carrier of the diseases while you move from one plant to another
4. Pull out plants that are heavily infected.
5. Prune the plant parts where insect pests are found congregating and those that show heavy symptoms of disease infection.
6. Properly dispose of all the infected plants.
7. Pick rotten fruits and collect those that have dropped and bury in a pit.
8. Plow-under the crop residues and organic mulches. This improves soil condition and helps to disrupt the pest's lifecycle. The pest is exposed to extreme temperature, mechanical injury, and predators.
9. Maintain cleanliness on the irrigation canals.
10. If possible, remove all the crop residues after harvest. Add these to your compost pile.
11. Make your own compost. Your compost pile is where you can place your plant trimmings and other plant debris.
12. Clean your farm tools. Wash plows, harrows, shovels, trowels and pruning gears after use. Lightly oil pruning gears.

Hot water seed treatment

Certified disease-free seed: Always use healthy seed as anthracnose is seed-borne. When using own seed, treat the seed with hot water. For more information on hot-water treatment of seeds click here.


Pruning

Pruning is the selective removal of specific plant parts like shoots and branches. It is particularly important for fruit trees. Pruning done in a regular basis as part of plant care achieves the following:
  • makes the plant less dense
  • improves the air circulation and sunlight penetration that decrease the incidence of diseases and the conditions that promote fungal growth. It also allows better spray penetration and coverage
  • improves the appearance and health of plants
  • gets rid of the disease infected parts
  • allows the natural enemies to find their preys easily
  • controls the size of a plant
  • trains the young plants
  • influences flowering and fruiting (proper pruning of flower buds encourages early vegetative growth)

Reminders for crops that in their management need pruning
  • Pruning is done best during dry weather as it minimizes the spread of the pathogens that cause diseases
  • Always use sharp pruning tools to have clean and smooth cuts angled to shed water and absorb sunlight
  • Dip your pruning tools into container with 10% bleach solution and wash your hands and pruning tools between pruning the diseased plants
  • After pruning, disinfect your pruning tools with 10% bleach solution
  • Ask for assistance from your local agriculturist for the proper pruning techniques on fruit trees
back to Index
Biopesticides and physical methods

Copper

There are many copper compounds that are used as fungicides. The most common are derived from copper hydroxide and copper oxychloride. These products are cheap and are readily available in most African countries. It is accepted in organic farming provided that the number of applications is strictly followed and a proper soil amendment is observed to prevent copper accumulation in the soil.

In organic culture it is advised to consult your organic certification body. Also as copper products constitute propriety products, users are advised to comply with product label instructions on dosage, frequency of application, pre-harvest intervals and product safety (proper handling, storage, and disposal). Most available copper products include KOCIDE 101®, KOCIDE DF® and copper oxychloride.

When handling and/or applying pesticides observe the following:
  • Read and follow the label instructions carefully.
  • Ask for assistance from your local agriculture office when using copper for the first time.
  • Monitor plants regularly and spray only when necessary as copper can accumulate in the soil.
  • Spray in the early morning or late afternoon.
  • Wear protective clothing when handling and/or applying any pesticide (including copper)
  • Wash your hands after handling / pesticides
For more information on copper click here.
back to Index
Information Source Links
  • CABI. (2004). Crop Protection Compendium, 2004 Edition. © CAB International Publishing. Wallingford, UK. www.cabi.org
  • OISAT (Online Information Service for Non-Chemical Pest Management in the Tropics) www.oisat.org
  • Waller, JM. (1992). Colletotrichum diseases of perennial and other cash crops. In: J.A.Bailey and M.J. Jeger (Editors). Colletotrichum: biology, pathology and control. CABI, Wallingford , ISBN 978-0851987569
  • Wheeler, B.E.J. (1969). An Introduction to Plant Diseases. John Wiley & Sons Ltd. ISBN: 0 471 93752 5
back to Index
Anthracnose on mango (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides). Anthracnose initially appears as small black spots. On leaves, the spots can grow to form an irregular patch. On young fruit, pin-sized, brown or black, sunken spots develop.
© A.A. Seif, A.M. Milena, icipe
Transplanting
Transplanting is the planting of uprooted seedlings grown in seedbeds or in nurseries, in a permanent location where they will continue to grow
Crop rotation
Crop rotation is the practice of growing different crops in succession on the same land.
Cucurbits
Cucurbitaceae is a plant family commonly known as melons, gourds or cucurbits and includes crops like cucumbers, squashes (including pumpkins), luffas, melons and watermelons. The family is predominantly distributed around the tropics, where those with edible fruits were amongst the earliest cultivated plants in both the Old and New Worlds.
Diameter
Thickness or width.
Canker
Disease of plants that is caused by numerous species of fungi and bacteria. Symptoms include round-to-irregular, sunken, swollen, flattened, or cracked, discoloured, and dead areas on the stem (cane), twig, limb, or trunk.
Conidium
An asexually produced fungal spore.
Fungi
Occurring worldwide, most fungi are largely invisible to the naked eye, living for the most part in soil, dead matter, and as symbionts of plants, animals, or other fungi. They perform an essential role in all ecosystems in decomposing organic matter and are indispensable in nutrient cycling and exchange. Some fungi become noticeable when fruiting, either as mushrooms or molds.

Fungi are responsible for a range of serious plant diseases such as blight, grey mould, bunts, powdery mildew, and downy mildew. Crops of all kinds often suffer heavy losses.

Fungal plant diseases are usually managed with applications of chemical fungicides or heavy metals. In some cases, conventional breeding has provided fungus resistantcultivars.

Besides combatting yield losses, preventing fungal infection keeps crops free of toxic compounds produced by some pathogenic fungi. These compounds, often referred to as mycotoxins, can affect affect the immune system and disrupt hormone balances. Some mycotoxins are carcinogenic.
Inflorescence
A group of flowers growing from a common stem, often in a characteristic arrangement. Also called flower cluster.
saprophyte
A organism living on dead or decaying organic matter
Cotyledon
The first leaf of a germinating seed, also called seed-leaf.
Certification
A process verifying the compliance of farm management with i.e. organic standards; based on inspection of the farm and its documentation.
Distortion
deformation or malformation
Organic agriculture
Holistic farming system that avoids the use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides. It emphasizes the set-up of a balanced agro-ecosystem and is based on methods like crop rotation, intercropping, green manures, organic manures, biological pest control etc. The farm can be certified organic if the specified organic standards are fully met
Fungi
Occurring worldwide, most fungi are largely invisible to the naked eye, living for the most part in soil, dead matter, and as symbionts of plants, animals, or other fungi. They perform an essential role in all ecosystems in decomposing organic matter and are indispensable in nutrient cycling and exchange. Some fungi become noticeable when fruiting, either as mushrooms or molds.

Fungi are responsible for a range of serious plant diseases such as blight, grey mould, bunts, powdery mildew, and downy mildew. Crops of all kinds often suffer heavy losses.

Fungal plant diseases are usually managed with applications of chemical fungicides or heavy metals. In some cases, conventional breeding has provided fungus resistantcultivars.

Besides combatting yield losses, preventing fungal infection keeps crops free of toxic compounds produced by some pathogenic fungi. These compounds, often referred to as mycotoxins, can affect affect the immune system and disrupt hormone balances. Some mycotoxins are carcinogenic.
Predator
Animal that attacks and feeds on other animals, such as an insect (e.g. ladybird beetle), bird or spider feeding on pest insects.
Hypocotyl
The part of the stem of a seedling below the seed-leaves.
Cultivar
Cultivar is a plant variety. It is a group of similar plants which through their structural features and performance can be identified from other varieties within the same species.
Conidium
An asexually produced fungal spore.
Acervuli
A tiny cushionlike or blisterlike structure produced by certain fungi on a plant host and consisting of a mass of hyphae-bearing asexually produced spores.
Symptom
Symptom - the plant's response to the disease causing organism, examples are; changes in plant color, death of infected tissues, and wilting. It is the external or internal physical characteristic of a disease as expressed by the host plant.